Nationalism+in+Germany+and+Austria-Hungary

=Nationalism and Imperial Ambition= **Europe at the end of the nineteenth Century entered the Age of Imperialism. Countries believed economic and territorial expansion were necessary to maintain their statuses as world powers. Both members of the Dual Alliance, Germany and Austria-Hungary, focused their energies on gaining spheres of influence. The selfish ambitions of the leaders of these two states occupied an opportune environment in the imperialistic atmosphere. Their objectives found a supportive ideology in their nations' lust for controlling the balance of power. In the cases of Germany and Austria-Hungary nationalism played equally important but opposite roles in the years leading up to World War I. In Germany, nationalism acted as a unifying mechanism, while the multitude of ethnic identities and conflicts in Austria-Hungary divided the empire. Germany used nationalism as a motivation for the public to support the war, while the weakening Austro-Hungarian monarchy saw the First World War as an opportunity to repress nationalistic sentiment and goals of self-determinism in the outer regions of its empire.**

Germany
Germany's reputation up until the very end of the 1800s was that of a rapidly advancing but non-agressive nation. The country's progress enfused its citizens with a healthy national pride despite some political divisions. Over the course of two decades however, ambitious officials who adopted a much more offensive diplomatic stance fanned this pride into a jingoistic fervor. The rapacious aspirations of Germany's leaders that were transferred to the public as ardent nationalism alienated several other key powers in Europe, bringing the whole region to the brink of conflict. The ambitions of the figures in power entwined with an imperialistic foreign policy and backed by the nationalistic zeal of the people provided the driving force that sent Germany into World War I.

In the last quarter of the 19th Century, German foreign policy followed a [|Realpolitik] approach. This style of diplomacy is based on practical consideration with the ultimate goal to maintain the balance of power among parties. Realpolitick was championed in Germany by (1 April 1815-30 July 1898), who served as the German Empire's first chancellor from 1871 to 1890. Under Bismarck's determined but pragmatic and balanced leadership, Germany enjoyed tremendous growth, increasing its agricultural output, industrial production, and foreign trade several times over between 1871 and 1814. **1**[|?] Bismarck also implemented a comprehensive social welfare program that granted German workers many benefits. Despite political conflicts that centered around the rising of the Social Democratic Party, the German population was united and proud in this period of prosperity.
 * Bismarck Years**

A new era began in Germany in 1888 with the accession of (27 January 1859-4 June 1941) to the throne. Germany's outlook under his reign quickly began to differ from that under his grandfather, [|Wilhelm I] (22 March 1797-9 March 1888). The new Kaiser dismissed von Bismarck in 1890, and it soon became clear he abandoned the chancellor's philosophy as well. **2**[|?] In 1897, Wilhelm II announced Germany's new foreign policy of [|Weltpolitik]. The exact opposite of its predecessor, this strategy intended to increase Germany's authority and secure its place as a world power at all costs. This expansionist model was a response to the recent upsurge of imperialism in Europe. In the late 19th Century, England, Russia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United States partook in a frenzied effort to claim territory in Africa and Asia. **3**[|?] Creating and protecting a sphere of influence in the form of an empire was of the utmost importance to any state that wanted to remain a major player in the global political arena. These political moves, coinciding with the growing attitude of, contributed to the paranoia and desperation of German officials that led to their aggressive policies. One of the first manifestations of Weltpolitick was the. This act, along with four subsequent acts over fourteen years, was the brainchild of Admiral, Secretary of State for the Navy. **4**[|?] The law required a significant increase in Germany's naval capabilities with the addition of new battleships. Von Tirpitz argued that Germany needed a greater presence on the sea to protect its colonial interests. Not only did the law fit right in with imperialistic atmosphere of Weltpolitik, it also satisfied the personal ambitions of von Tirpitz, who had always wanted to advance the German navy's reputation, and the Kaiser who dreamed of building a fleet that could rival that of Great Britain, the world's foremost maritime power. Another product of Weltpolitik was the. The plan, a response to the perceived threat of the Entente Cordiale of 1904, was first circulated in 1905 by, Chief of the General Staff. **5**[|?] Schlieffen believed that the most likely conflict would be a two-front war against France and Russia. He devised a plan whereby (if all went well), Germany would defeat both nations in a mere seven weeks. The army would accomplish this by attacking France while Russia still worked to mobilize. A key detail, however, was that German forces would reach France by swerving through Belgium. In a textbook example of political arrogance and egocentric ambition, the Germans embraced this plan, disregarding the precarious assumptions it rested on and the invasion and violation of a neutral country. Schlieffen's desire to defeat France and Russia eclipsed any consideration for human life, French, Belgian, or German. The emergence of Weltpolitik was perhaps the most important development in antebellum Germany. Practically all German diplomatic and military strategies after 1897 stemmed from this new foreign policy and political attitude. Its emphasis on the importance of colonial possessions led to Germany's interference in Tangier in 1905 and Agadir in 1911. These actions prompted the strengthening of alliances among Britain, England, and Russia. **6**[|?] These agreements increased Germany's feelings of isolation, which in turn fostered the belief of the Kaiser and his ministers that only in a direct (violent) confrontation could Germany assert its dominance. With the implementation of the Schlieffen Plan beginning August 3, 1914, Germany pulled France, Belgium, England, and Canada into the enveloping vortex of World War I. **7**[|?]
 * Introduction of Weltpolitik**

While the Kaiser and his minsters were ultimately responsible for its entry into war in 1914, many domestic organizations advocated their imperialistic policies. In light of Germany's impressive industrial growth, many Germans developed a sense of patriotism that bordered on (or perhaps reached) a superiority complex. This attitude was evident in the ideologies of many institutions. The merger of two groups in 1887 formed the (Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft). This society promoted the Kaiser's expansionist policies and armament of the imperial navy. The Colonial Society spread its message through a newspaper column, pamphlets, brochures, and lectures, and reported a membership of 17,000 by 1890. **8**[|?] The (//Alldeutscher Verband),// established in 1891, was one of the most prominent and outspoken proponents for imperialism. By 1918, more than 36,000 people subscribed to the League mission was to expand German influence and preserve Germany's strength. **9**[|?] The League acquired racist undertones, considering interbreeding with certain nationalities a threat to Germany's superiority. During the war, the Pan-German League supported a program of annexation, focused on areas of France and Poland. **10**[|?] The League disseminated its ideas in numerous leaflets and writings known as "Pan-Sheets." **11**[|?] The was founded in 1898 under the direction of Admiral von Tirpitz. The League, which by 1900 consisted of over 600,000 members, was a lobbying group for the naval acts proposed by von Tirpitz. **11**[|?] Its primary focus was to pressure the Reichstag into approving the expenditures for a navy "strong enough to protect Germany’s growing overseas trade and its fledgling colonies with force and might, and at all times watch over the honor of the Empire in distant seas." **12**[|?] German nationalist groups of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries played an important role in instigating and perpetuating Germany's involvement in World War One. Some, such as the Navy League, campaigned for a specific proposal that put Germany in a more aggressive position, one at odds with other key players in Europe. Others encouraged Germany's military activities and viewed the war as a necessary step toward achieving their goals of German hegemony in the continent and around the world.
 * Nationalist Groups**

In the days and weeks after the Kaiser called for German mobilization, top German officials spoke to the German people to incite their nationalistic sentiment to proceed into war. On August 1, 1914, Wilhelm II appealed to the Germans' sense of loyalty and brotherhood in wartime. **13**[|?] After violating Belgian neutrality to reach France, Imperial Chancellor spoke in defense of the invasion. His words on August 14 declared that other countries were envious of Germany's power and success. **14**[|?] In a speech on August 18, Wilhelm II reminded soldiers of the "glorious days" in Germany's military history. **15**[|?] Once war was under way, the German government and nationalisitic organizations had to maintain the people's support for the troops and belief in victory. Propaganda posters employed religous symbolism, patriotic images of glorious Germany and its soldiers, and depictions of the Kaiser's authority as seen [|here]. These elements of nationalistic propaganda circulated by the government put German citizens in a belligerent mindset. Posters, pamphlets, and speeches from the government and nationalist institutions convinced the German people that the declaration of war that would launch Europe into four years of devastation was a noble cause.
 * Propaganda**

[|Austria-Hungary]
The Habsburg Monarchy began to decline around the turn of twentieth century. The Monarchy, considering its situation, actually survived longer than many would have predicted16. The 1867 constitutional agreement, which split the Empire into the two kingdoms of Austria and Hungary17-- or Cis-Leithania and Trans-Leithania as they were officially called-- was one reason the Habsburg Empire lasted till 191818. By split the country into two kingdoms, each with their own parliament, the Monarchy did not focus on internal affairs but focused mainly on foreign policy and such. Also, the two parliaments controlled their own kingdom but did not exercise power over the Monarch. Another unifying influence was industrialization. Industrialization brought the country together as a whole and Socialism, a by-product of industrialization, called for unity in the Empire. Socialism ignored the different ethnic groups. Unfortunately, the different racial conflicts did eventually tear the Hapsburg Empire apart19.

The many ethnic conflicts, as previously mentioned, divided the Hapsburg Empire but also aided in causing World War I. The Empire of Austria-Hungary was comprised of ten major ethnicities--the Germans, the Magyars, the Czechs, the Poles, the Romanians, the Ruthenians, the Serbs and Croats, the Italians, the Slovenes, and the Slovaks. In the 1867 constitutional agreement, the Germans and Magyars were each the major national group in their halves of the empire and therefore they controlled the parliament and the government of their kingdom. The Slavs, despite being the majority in the entire empire, were split between the two kingdoms and between their different nationalities. This excluded them from being a major political force in Austria-Hungary. Obviously, many Slavs were bitter about their lack of rights and while few wanted to break from the empire, all wished to have for more autonomy20. While many nationalities did not begin to break from the Empire until World War I, the Monarchy still viewed nationalism with concern every since the loss of the Italian provinces. The Italian province of Piedmont allied with other Italian provinces and France to break away from Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary feared that the Serbs and the Romanians would follow suit, joining up with the neighboring states of Serbia and Romania and the Habsburg Monarchy foreign policy reflected their fear, opposing all nationalism21. In fact, the most prominent nationalist movement in the Balkans at this time was the Serbian movement. Serbia wanted to ally with the Serbs in the Austro-Hungarian Empire and create a larger Serbian state. This nationalistic movement caused fear in the Habsburg Monarchy, who considered Serbia a threat to the empire22. The first and second Balkan Wars had major impacts on Serbia. The first was that Serbia gained much territory. To counter Serbia and to prevent Serbian expansion to the Adriatic Sea, the Habsburg monarchy helped to create an independent Albania, who remained loyal to the Austro-Hungarian Empire23. Another result of the Balkan Wars was an increased demand for a Southern Slavic State (or Yugoslavia). Fearing that Serbia would weaken the empire, Austria decided to war a preventative war with Serbia to undermine Serbia's growing power and merely waited for the proper excuse to do so24.
 * Ethnic Conflicts**

While Austria-Hungary had interests in Balkan nationalism, the Empire had other reasons for becoming involved in the Balkans. The wars in the 1850's and 1860's forced the Austro-Hungarian Empire to abandon its roles of influence in the Italian and German states. At the same time, the Ottoman Empire, the traditional power in the Balkan region, was in decline. Austria-Hungary searching for areas to influence became involved in the Balkan region. Russia also became partially involved until the 1900's. After 1905 and after having been forced by Japan to abandon its Eastern territories, Russia turned its attention back to the Balkan region as well. Thus, Austria-Hungary and Russia began to compete for power in the region25. War between Turkey and Russia in the 1877-78 resulted in the Treaty of San Stefano. This treaty gave Bulgaria independence, Serbia and Romania received territory while Russia and Austria-Hungary jointly supervised Bosnia-Herzegovina. This arrangement did not last as Britain and and Austria-Hungary both felt Russia received to much influence over the Balkans. The Treaty of Berlin in 1878 decided that Russia would keep its territorial gains, Serbia, Montenegro and Romania kept their independence, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire exclusively supervised Bosnia-Herzegovina26. In 1908, Austria-Hungary wished to solidify its hold over Bosnia-Herzegovina, to block Serbian expansion and to gain more influence in the area. Count Aehrenthal and Alexander Izolski, the Austro-Hungarian and Russian Foreign ministers respectively, began to hold negotiations. In these talks, the two men decided that Austria-Hungary would annex Bosnia-Herzegovina and Austria-Hungary would support Russia's proposal to Europe that the rule of the Straits of Constantinople, currently in Turkish hands, be changed. Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina but Russia's proposal was rejected by Britain. Russia's failed proposal caused a breakdown of relations between the two countries. Serbia demanded compensation for Austria-Hungary's annexation, this demand was backed by Russia but denied by Austria-Hungary. The tension almost led to war but instead Russia and Austria-Hungary began to feel threatened by each other. Russia became involved in the war between Serbia and Austria-Hungary due to these conflicts and because of the threat that Austria-Hungary presented to Russia's influence in the Balkans27. For Austria-Hungary, the Balkan region was an area of interest because of the nationalism of the region and because the Habsburg monarch was searching for an area to control. While the Monarchy's suppression of nationalism was more important in actually starting what the Austro-Hungarian Empire viewed as a preventative war, it was the ambition and desire for power that concerned Russia, along with the sting of Russia's failure to gain control of the Straits. Thus, Russia became involved in the war between Serbia and Austria-Hungary. Russia's involvement caused Germany and all European nations that were a part of the alliance system to also join in the war.
 * Balkan Concerns**

During World War I, Austria-Hungary was even more divided. While many Croats, Slovenes, Italians, Romanians, Czechs, Poles, Germans, and Magyars fought together, some Czechs and Poles joined with the Allies instead. Other Serbs, Ruthenes, and Czechs merely halfheartedly supported the war. The Hungarian half of the Empire, or the bread-basket, also profited the war by raising the price of grain, causing the Austrian half to go hungry. Yet, despite the divisions and problem during the War, no mass revolts or even large-scale defects28. It was not until Austria was defeated that the nationalities began to split from the Empire. When the Empire was defeated and President Wilson declared that he no longer supported a continuation of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Poland, Yugoslavia, and Hungary declared their independence. German Austria was forced to end the Habsburg rule and form a republic29.
 * National Division in the War**

Gallery
Wilhelm II Otto von Bismarck Theobald von Bethmann-Holwegg Schlieffen Plan

Notes and References
1. Grenville. //A History of the World in the Twentieth Century.// pg. 15 2. Grenville. //A History of the World in the Twentieth Century.// pg. 19 3. **McDonough**[|?]. //The Origins of the First and Second World Wars.// pg. 4 4. Grenville. //A History of the World in the Twentieth Century.// pg. 19 5. Grenville. //A History of the World in the Twentieth Century.// pg. 21 6. **McDonough**[|?]. //The Origins of the First and Second World War. pgs. 9-10// 7. "1914 Timeline". // **WorldWar**[|?] -1.Net.// 8. Retallack. "Aims of the German Colonial Society." 9. "Statutes of the Pan-German League." //German History in Documents and Images//. 10."Statutes of the Pan-German League." //German History in Documents and Images//. 11. Grossman, Daniel. "The Anglo-German Naval Race." 12. Grossman, Daniel. "The Anglo-German Naval Race." 13. Wilhelm II, Kaiser. "Speech from the Balcony of the Royal Palace." 14. von Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald. "Speech to the Reichstag." 15. Wilhelm II, Kaiser. "Speech to the Guards." 16. Grenville. //A History of the World in the Twentieth Century.// pg. 61 17. "Austria-Hungary: Definition from Answers.com." //Answers.com: Wiki Q&A Combined with Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus, and Encyclopedias//. 18. Grenville. //A History of the World in the Twentieth Century.// pg.130 19. Ibid. 62-63 20. Ibid. 62-63 21. Ibid. 65 22. Tonge, Stephen. "Austria-Hungary 1870-1914." 23. Grenville. //A History of the World in the Twentieth Century.// pg.66 24. Tonge, Stephen. "Causes of the First World War." 25. Grenville. //A History of the World in the Twentieth Century.// pg. 65 26. **McDonough**[|?]. //The Origins of the First and Second World War. pg. 4-5// 27. Grenville. //A History of the World in the Twentieth Century.// pg. 65-66 28. Ibid. 96-97 29. Ibid. 130

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